While
I was sitting in the microclimate-stabilizing room outside the Scrovegni Chapel
this weekend in Padova, I watched the video on the Chapel that was playing to
pass the time. It actually turned
out to be very interesting, and I learned about a new form of art deterioration
that peaked my interest: salt bloom.
I was actually so interested in it that I asked Vijay to remind me about
it later for my blog post. So here
I am now, still wondering what salt bloom is. (Side Note: the Scrovegni Chapel was a funeral chapel,
commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni for his father, that was painted by the
renowned artist Giotto after its construction began in 1300).
Salt damage in the Scrovengi Chapel Paintings
It
turns out that salt bloom, or efflorescence, occurs when solvent evaporates out
of a porous substance, and leaves behind highly concentrated salt deposits that
appear as a “bloom” on the painting. In the Scrovegni Chapel, the salt bloom also caused
blistering and distortion in the paintings. These “blooms” happen in everyday
life too on our garage floors and sometimes on our walls to, but usually no
extreme measures are necessary for removing them due to the regular usage and
traffic on and around these items.
However, works of art damaged by efflorescence often require the use of
bacteria (solvents can be used, but they are often damaging) to get rid of the
unsightly bloom.
Efflorescence from Lipid Accumulation on Leather
Efflorescence
can also appear as the accumulation of fatty acids on the surface of porous
materials. These fatty acids
present in the art can arise from a number of sources, such as leather, paints
(i.e. oil), and other treatments done to works of art by artists. There is evidence that some of the
lipid crystallization may occur more heavily around certain colors in a
painting due to chemical reactions that may arise from the different
compositions of the paints.
Researchers are still looking to what kind of deposits form on the
paintings and what reactions might make them take place.
Much
work has been done on the Scrovegni Chapel to help restore and maintain its
condition. The
microclimate-stabilizing room were sitting in was just one of the mechanisms
conservators have devised to help preserve the Scrovegni Chapel, but it is an
extremely important one. By having
the microstabilized climate and by allowing only a 25 people at a time to visit
inside the chapel, conservators have made definite steps to help avoid more
salt bloom from contact with too much of the outside environment, which could
cause changes in the paintings’ hydration states. Hopefully these measures will keep the Chapel looking great
for another 700 years.
So,
here’s something interesting: Italy’s electricity is different from America’s.
First of all, I need this stupid adapter to get anything plugged in and done.
Second of all, I need to make sure that everything I plug in works at 220V. And
why is that? Because if I don’t, then it will fry.
This thing is so useful, and so necessary.
Let’s
start with a talk about electrical current. Power is generated either through
the consumption of fossil fuels or through some other source of energy
(nuclear, wind, solar, etc.). This power is in the form of electricity.
Electrical current is the flow of the electrical charge through a medium (like
power lines). Most power lines work on Alternating Current (AC), meaning that
the current cycles (at 50 Hz in Italy, 60 Hz in the US). This is as opposed to
Direct Current (DC), which is much harder to distribute over long distances.
With AC, power is distributed from the power plant to our appliances. Of course,
the voltage is controlled by transformers along the power line, which are able
to use magnetic fields and some simple electromagnetic math to convert
electricity from one voltage from another. It should be clear that the power of
a device is equal to the voltage times the current (considering the voltage is
how much energy is in each particle and the current is the number of particles
per second, this makes sense). This means that if the voltage is too high, the
device will be overpowered and fry.
We all
had to check our devices that we brought on this trip to ensure they were 220V
compatible. Luckily, laptop chargers generally do work at these voltages. Also,
my cell phone charger works here. Sadly, my charger for my electric toothbrush
didn’t, so I had to leave that behind. It’s a sad but true reality, unless you
have what is basically a giant waste of space (a portable transformer that will
step up or down the current for your specific device), you will have to leave
something behind. I hope the people who wanted hair driers were able to find
some way to manage.
So this leads me to an interesting question.
Why is the US 110-120V and Italy 220V? Is there some specific reason? Well,
back in the day, everyone seems to have used the lower voltage, but Europe
realized that it would be smarter and easier to use the higher voltage. Sadly, this
was impractical for the United States, whose residents already had too many
lower voltage appliances. So, the old voltage stands (although it was upped
from 110 to 120 in the 1950’s).
So… I put on make-up everyday, and I’m obsessed with them.
Make-up is just so much fun and there are so many colors. It makes you look
different and exuberant different vibes with different make-ups. And one my one
little addictive hobbies, is to collect lipsticks. I don’t usually wear
lipsticks normally, because I look too dressy when I wear them. Still,
lipsticks are one of the most fun cosmetics products and their packaging is
usually really pretty. My favorite lipsticks are from YSL(Yves Saint Laurent).
They are really smooth and stay on all day. They have absolutely stunning
colors and smell so good. My favorite shade is, hands down, mysterious red. I
wear it when I’m really dressed up, and it’s the prettiest red I have ever
seen.
Also, I recommend the NARS matte color lip pencils; stay all-day and so
easy to use! Before I turn this post into a make-up tutorial, let me talk about
some chemistry about lipsticks.
Historically, ancient people color their lips with different
things. In ancient china, people use pigmented paper extracted in plants and flowers
to color their lips. The ancient Egyptians are known to use henna to paint
lips, whereas there is another recipe that shows the lip paint is composed of
focus-algin, 0.01% iodine and bromine mannite. This is toxic! Maybe that is why
make-up is considered to be evil in the ancient times.
Lipsticks nowadays are made of wax, oils, pigments and
emollients. Wax is pretty important in the composition in lipsticks and is
mainly responsible for the smooth “glide on” touch. Also, of course, the shape
of the tube. Beeswax is commonly used in lipsticks. It is made of esters of
straight-chain monohydric alcohols with even-numbered carbon chains from C24
to C36, along with straight-chain acids with even numbers of
carbon atoms up to C36. Hence, this is a very stable structure,
preventing the lip-color to decompose easily. Moreover, oil is essential as
well. Olive oil, mineral oil, caster oil and cocoa butter are often used. Oil
makes the lipstick thick and sticky to keep the color cling to the lips. The
combination of oil and wax keeps the lipstick to wear off when drinking water
or licking her(maybe his ;)) lips.
In addition, the pigments (dyes) of the lipstick have to be
special to stick to the lips for a long time. Because dyes are soluble, they
have to be “laked” first, meaning converting the soluble substances to
insoluble ones by treatment with metal oxides. Eosin is a popular substance to
be used. When it is in contact with skin, the NH2 groups on it
reacts with the surface and becomes a deeper red.
Lipsticks are awesome and definitely one of the greatest
inventions. But I probably wouldn’t wear them if they were toxic like ancient
times!
With
the three-day weekend coming up, one potential option of travel has been
Italy’s northern neighbor, Switzerland. While Switzerland is not the most prime
travel spot in Europe, there are many aspects that have attracted us to this
wealthy country. As tourists, the Swiss Alps and the beautiful sight-seeing
pulls us in, but as scientists, one of the world’s largest and most remarkable research
instruments simply mesmerizes us. It’s not a several million dollar telescope
or a NMR spectroscopy machine, but it’s actually the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC). As a project built and internationally sponsored by the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the LHC has been a grandeur and significant
tool in the scientific community, currently hosting several modernly advanced
experiments that would otherwise be impossible.
As
mostly chemists and biologists, the LHC does not really seem to have any immense
significance or prominence to us, but the pivotal results of the physics
experiments performed on the machine has the potential to change the world
around us, either confirming or invalidating all our knowledge, including that
of chemistry and biology. This “make-or-break” instrument called the Large
Hadron Collider is currently the world’s largest particle accelerator and is
very likely the most important and renowned piece of equipment in modern
physics; engineers and physicists admire and venerate the LHC as a scientific
masterpiece of great potent. You may be wondering why a mere particle
accelerator is such a big deal, considering the name implies that it just
tosses two things together. Partially correct, but let’s start with a few
jaw-dropping statistics. Resting (well, that’s ironic, considering the immense
amounts of energy being used by the machine) a hundred meters underground, the
LHC is basically a circular “race-track” with a circumference of 27 kilometers (for
the United States, 17 miles) and massively spans across two countries, Switzerland
and France. Mainly located right outside Geneva, the colossal instrument can be
considered an essential “race-track” in respect to its function and purpose in
the field of physics as a particle accelerator.
A particle accelerator basically
speeds up subatomic particles, such as protons, electrons, leptons and others,
for different various purposes, usually for a high-speed collision which can be
studied via a sensitive detector. In these instruments, the charged subatomic
particles are generally accelerated by electromagnetic fields while being held
in consistent, sharp beams. Normally, particle accelerators can have different
shaped tracks, including simple linear paths and complex cyclones, each having
advantages and disadvantages. In the case of the LHC, the track is circular in
shape due to its necessity for high-energy collisions at extreme speeds. The
circular track serves as the ideal shape for a high-energy collision as the
particles can repeatedly cycle the track until a desired speed is reach. The hadrons,
which are either protons or lead ions, in the LHC are continually accelerated
by thousands of electromagnets strategically placed along the perimeter of the
circular, tubular track. Furthermore, the single track facilitates hadrons
traveling in opposite directions essentially around the same path, except
slightly displaced from each other to avoid premature collision. Therefore, in
addition to propelling the hadrons, the electromagnets must also control the
particles by keeping them on the same separate paths and maintaining their
formation as distinct beams. This seemingly easy task becomes increasingly
difficult as the energy and speed of the particles rise towards their target
state. On top of that, the paths forced on and traveled by the particles must
be incredibly accurate during the entire time of acceleration, which can be up
to several hours, depending on the required conditions; otherwise, one little
mistake can cause the loss of all the work and energy put into the trial. To
emphasize the accuracy, even the tides of the Moon must be taken into
consideration for the path traveled by the hadrons. In the case of a full or
new moon, the gravitational pull from the moon and the shift of the Earth’s
crust alters the beam of hadrons in the LHC to be slightly off-course from the
curvature of the circular path, so the operators must adjust and correct for
this misalignment. The accuracy of the hadrons’ path is excruciatingly important
considering the build-up for a several trillion electron volt collision at
speeds bordering the speed of light.
As of
today, several milestones have been achieved as researchers progressively move
towards the LHC’s ultimate goal. Currently, there are six different “experiments”
being run at the LHC: ATLAS, CMS, ALICE, LHCb, TOTEM, and LHCf. However, these
are not really experiments in the sense that we would think of them as, but
instead they are the various types of detectors used to study the particles and
the conditions of their collision. Each of these particle detectors serves a
different purpose and study unique things. The two major detectors, ATLAS and
CMS, study the main aspects of the LHC, analyzing the various particles formed
from the hadron collisions in the accelerator. Similarly, except designed to be
more specific, the next two experiments, ALICE and LHCb, are intended to detect
and examine the collisions for certain phenomena and particular questions, not
particles in general. Moreover, almost as supplementary experiments, TOTEM and
LHCf are the smallest detectors of the three and simply concentrate on the
hadrons that do not end up colliding, also called “forward particles;” these
particles are the few rare ones that do not directly collide at full energy,
instead they miss completely or skim past each other. All together, these six
experiments are used to study the conditions of the high-energy collisions
produced in the LHC, moving the scientists closer to achieving their hopeful
end goal: finding the “God Particle.” Physicists believe that using the LHC to recreate
conditions similar to that of the Big Bang (which conspiracy theorists believe
will end the world) by high-energy collisions will allow them to find and study
a particle known as Higgs Boson, or more commonly known as the “God Particle.” Higgs
Boson is basically the epitome of and key to all physics (and pretty much every
other field of science)! By confirming and studying the existence of Higgs Boson,
some of the things that can be resolved and founded include the origin and
explanation of mass, information on the mysterious dark matter, and possibly
uncovering another dimension of space. More specifically, Higgs Boson is a
hypothetical elementary particle at the core of modern and particle physics. The
daunting task of recreating the Big Bang and finding Higgs Boson is not as easy
as it sounds; the difficulty comes in at the high-energy collision. Up to
current day, the LHC has been reportedly able to successfully operate at 4 TeV
(teraelectronvolts) per beam for a total collision energy of a whopping 8 TeV.
Theoretically by calculations, in order to achieve Big Bang conditions and the
finding of Higgs Boson, the LHC has to smash protons together at 7 TeV per beam
for an insane collision of 14 TeV, which the Large Hadron Collider was actually
designed for. In the coming months, the LHC is expected close for upgrades that
will allow the 14 TeV collision and the director of CERN responsible for the
LHC, Rolf-Dieter Heuer, predicts that the conclusion to Higgs Boson will be determined
by the end of the year.
Unfortunately,
as much as we would like to, due to time-constraints, we will not be able to visit
Geneva, Switzerland and marvel at the wondrous Large Hadron Collider (instead
we will be visiting the never-ending canals of Venice). Even if we were able to
go to Geneva, I would think the closest we could ever get to the LHC would be
the gate around the facility. I would imagine the security would be tight and
strict at such an expensive and important machine, especially after a man claiming
to be from the future world of a “communist chocolate hellhole” tried to
sabotage the LHC’s operation by stopping supplies of Mountain Dew to the
facility’s vending machines. Most ironic part was that he disappeared after being
put into a mental health facility. O_O (True story from a fairly reliable
source, quite a funny read as well. Check it out: http://crave.cnet.co.uk/gadgets/man-arrested-at-large-hadron-collider-claims-hes-from-the-future-49305387/)
Katniss Everdeen. That was the first word I searched up for blog post ideas. After an amazing weekend in Venice, all I remember reading about were the articles on medicinal plants and "The Hunger Games". Searching both readings on google, I surprisingly found an overlapping point between the two. Apparently the plant catnip which Katniss was named after is also one of Nature's 18 most powerful medicinal plants. Even better, catnip is also known as a cat drug! Great. Perfect blog topic for me!
The Cat Ecstasy - Catnip!
Nepeta Cataria, the scientific name for catnip, is a herb from the mint family native to Europe. Cat-owners who have catnip growing in their gardens may notice their cats rubbing or licking the plant (Like one of my cats!). After sniffing catnip, cats will show a noticeable change in response, such as acting "drunk", rolling around in ecstasy, or as if they have been sexually aroused.
This unique effect on cats is due to a particular aromatic oil in catnip called nepetalactone. Though some sources state that there is a receptor at the back the cat's nose for nepetalactone in the vomeronasal organ, researchers in UC Davis have shown that cats detect it through their olfactory epithelium, not through their vomeronasal organ. Different cats seem to react differently to catnip, yet the overall hallucinogenic effect is said to be similar to LSD or marijuana. This behavioural change which cat undergoes when exposed to catnip is inherited as a dominant trait, so only those with the autosomal dominant gene will react to catnip. Some large cats like tigers and lions may enjoy catnip as well!
Catnip is not only a magical plant for cats, but also a medicinal plant for us. Now we can purchase many effective drugs in the pharmacy, but our ancestors or those who still live close to nature would not be able to access a lot of new drugs - this is where plants come to great use. Medicinal plants are 100% natural so it is safe to use and unlikely to cause side effects. Fresh catnip leaves can heal cuts by simply crushing, damping, and applying them on the wound. Ingesting catnip can help treat gas and stomach aches; it can also relieve cold symptoms, so it is a perfect Nyquil substitute in the wild! When brewed in tea, catnip can calm and have a sedative effect. It can also be used in cooking as an aromatic herb added to salads or other dishes.
Even though more and more synthetic drugs are produced and sold, it is important to acknowledge the significance of medicinal plants on human health. Like catnip, there are hundreds of other herbs and plants in the world that serve important health purposes from antibacterial properties to detoxification effects. Some may cure minor bites and injuries, but others may be keys to numerous fatal diseases, including cancer. I believe in the future most medicines will incorporate these organic natural plants and ultimately provide a way to cure incurable diseases we currently face!
Stradivari. Guarneri. Are these names familiar to you? They
probably aren’t unless you have a love of classical music or perhaps play a
stringed instrument. Antonio Stradivari and Giuseppe Guarneri were two of the
most famous Italian instrument makers of the 18th century. The sound
of their instruments has long been classified as rich and elegant, and many
have tried and failed to match the quality instruments that these artists have
made.
Until recently, the top quality sound from these instruments
has been believed to come from the type of wood used and the geometry in the
instrument itself. However, recent studies have provided evidence for
degradation in the wood due to microbes and other chemicals that changed the
acoustics of the instruments.
In a 2009 study by a group at Texas A&M University,
instruments made by Stradivari and Guarneri were compared to French and English
instruments from the same time period as well as natural wood controls. The
group had examined the same wood in 2006 and had come to the conclusion that
the polymers in the wood had undergone degradation that is possible only
through chemical means. They examined the wood using many methods of analysis,
including back-scattered electron imaging, x-ray fluorescence, wavelength
dispersive spectroscopy, x-ray spectroscopy, and quantitative microprobe
analysis. Their findings support the idea that Stradivari and Guarneri knowingly or unknowingly used
chemicals to treat the wood while making their instruments (budding chemists, maybe?). These compounds are
speculated to reduce hemicellulose enzymes, which also reduce the moisture and
the density of the wood. This turns out to be really important in a
good-sounding instrument.
All four of the Stradivari and Guarneri instruments that were analyzed did contain unusual compounds compared to all of
the other samples. The most noteworthy was the finding of sodium borate (borax),
a common insecticide and fungicide that was used back in the day and
still is today. Calcium fluoride and zirconium silicate (Zircon) were also found in some
of the samples. None these compounds occur naturally in wood, so they must have
been added by the makers themselves. Since the researchers took care to avoid varnish samples, these compounds were either unintended for the instruments or added deliberately. Cool thing is, the salts are known to cause atrophy of
the wood and also help in oxidation. This leads to stiffness of the wood, an
important factor in sound quality.
In the 1800s, boiling the wood of instruments was common practice. This removed both tension and
other soluble substances that clogged up the pores. The wood became stiffer
and dryer, which led to better sound and higher sound velocity.
However, this also had the potential to damage the instrument unless done
properly.
Being soaked in water also helped the sound of the wood
because the cell walls remain open, allowing the wood to retain some amount of
permeability. The wood used for the instruments was most likely floated
down-river, picking up microbes and bacteria along the way. These little organisms burrow into
the wood, adding to the permeability as well. Scanning electron microscopy
revealed remnants of fungi and bacteria, and the wood also had more holes in it
than modern counterparts. Besides allowing for permeability, the holes create more room for the varnish to seep
into the wood, which improves the vibrational qualities, depending on the composition of the varnish, of course.
The varnish itself was extremely important to the quality of
the violin. Analysis revealed that the varnish in one of the Stradivari
instruments was composed of calcite, quartz, feldspar, and gypsum. Garnet,
rutile, and argentite were also present, along with fifteen other minerals. The
hard varnish increases the acoustics of the walls of the instrument, and has the
potential to reduce noise emission, depending on what type of crystals are used.
In the end, there is still room for research on why the
Stradivari and Guarneri instruments are a cut above the rest. Like any other
piece of art, scientists very rarely touch musical instruments like these,
unless a nondestructive technique is used. It’s still a bit of a mystery, but
we do know a good instrument comes from stiff, permeable wood and a strong
varnish, as well as a little bit of chemistry.
Stradivarius Violin
Here's my dilemma. Were Stradivari and Guarneri geniuses who knew what they were putting on their instruments and why? Or did they just somehow luck into the circumstances of wood type and varnish that led to magnificent creations? Even with all of the chemical and physical evidence behind the instruments, people today still can't reproduce the amazing quality from these Italian artisans. And so, the mystery persists.
The first most consumed beverage is water, but really that
doesn’t count. Therefore, next (and first to me) is tea! Almost every culture
has some kind of tea tradition. Whether it is British tea and biscuits, Indian
chai tea, or American iced (or sweet) tea. And it is most likely the world’s
second oldest beverage as well (after water)! People have been drinking tea for over 3,000
years.
In addition to tea’s tastiness, it has many health benefits:
Antioxidants:
First and foremost tea is filled with antioxidants,
specifically catechins. Green and white teas have significantly more
antioxidant concentrations then black teas. Black teas have less antioxidants
levels due to oxidation during its preparation.
The endogenous antioxidants in black tea are oxidized to other molecules
but still some remain.
Caffeine:
Tea also contains caffeine. The levels of caffeine range
from minimal amounts to amounts close to that of coffee. Black tea has between
30 and 60 mg of caffeine per cup, green tea has between 10 and 20 mg, and white
teas have a negligible amount. Although caffeine is known to be a diuretic,
many studies show that tea can replace water in hydrating the human body. As we
all know, caffeine in moderation is good for our bodies. Thus, two to three
cups of tea a day are great!
Fluorides:
Every tea contains some amount of fluoride. In small
amounts, fluoride promotes healthy teeth. However in larges amounts, fluoride
can be harmful to our bones. But this can be avoided. More mature tea leaves
tend to have greater concentrations of fluoride than young tea leaves. When tea
leaves are harvested by hand, there is a lower chance of gathering mature
leaves, but when they are harvested by machine, both young and mature leaves
are gathered. So when buying tea, make sure you buy hand picked tea.
Overall, tea has amazing properties that have yet to be
discovered. Similar to wine, tea has innumerable compounds and scientists are
just now discovering many of teas many benefits. Studies have found that many
teas prevent the growth of cancerous tumors. They also reduce the risk of heart
disease and neurological diseases. Nonetheless, different teas have different
health benefits. Green teas are great for preventing cancer. Black teas can
protect the lungs from cigarette smoke. Oolong tea may help people lose weight.
However, teas are best when they are brewed at home rather than purchased in
cans or bottles because home-brewed teas do not have all the artificial
sweeteners and extra calories.
Lastly, I recently replaced my coffee drinking habit with a
tea drinking habit and I have found that tea helps me focus better and tastes
much better. Now its time for you to make the switch to tea!
